Composer, arranger, and theorist George Russell died this past Monday night July 27, 2009, leaving behind a lifetime of important work that altered the course of the jazz world. Russell began playing music as a drummer during his youth in Cincinnati, moving towards a professional career through college. During an extended hospital stay, Russell studied harmony and began writing, soon selling an arrangement to Benny Carter. He later started performing again, but composing and arranging quickly became a primary focus. As he became closer to many jazz musicians, discussions about theory prompted him to think about harmony in a new way. He developed his Lydian Chromatic concept, which challenged traditional thoughts about harmonic organization. Musicians such as Miles Davis, Bill Evans, and John Coltrane embraced Russell’s concepts and applied them to their own musical endeavors, giving us masterpieces like Davis’ Kind of Blue and Coltrane’s My Favorite Things. Russell solidified his concept in two books, and practiced it through performance with his own groups, creating classic albums such as Jazz Workshop and Ezz-Thetics. A younger generation digested Russell’s concept as he moved into education, teaching courses on Lydian Chromatic theory at the New England Conservatory. Russell was awarded the MacArthur Foundation Fellowship, the National Endowment for the Arts American Jazz Master Award, two Guggenheim Fellowships, and many other honors. Russell moved jazz forward significantly; he heard jazz in a new light, opening the door to a new and modern perspective upon improvisation.

During his early years as a composer and arranger, Dizzy Gillespie hired Russell, who composed and arranged for the legendary 1947 Carnegie Hall concert, creating the milestone composition “Cubano Be, Cubano Bop.” This piece served as a major part of the concert, since it showcased Chano Pozo playing unrestrained and authentic Cuban rhythms, along with traditional chants. The band played to a full audience at a prestigious hall, setting a new level of exposure and recognition for Afro-Cuban rhythms. The sound of Pozo’s performance resonated in the ears of musicians around New York and soon they began their own experimentations with Afro-Cuban rhythms. Following the Carnegie Hall concert, Russell moved onto other projects, leaving “Cubano Be, Cubano Bop” as his single gift to the Latin Jazz world. Russell’s contribution to this one point in Latin Jazz history certainly made an impact, but it sits as a minor piece of his career and a tiny but memorable part of the Latin Jazz canon.

Still, mass media has painted a different story around Russell’s part in the Latin Jazz world. In a piece reporting Russell’s death, the Associate Press includes this statement:

“Russell was born in Cincinnati in 1923 and attended Wilberforce University. He played drums in Benny Carter’s band and later wrote ”Cubano Be/Cubano Bop” for Dizzy Gillespie’s orchestra. It premiered at Carnegie Hall in 1947 and was the first fusion of Afro-Cuban rhythms with jazz.”

According to the Associated Press, Russell single-handedly created the first fusion of Afro-Cuban rhythms with jazz.

Looking At “Cubano Be, Cubano Bop” In More Detail
Music evolves through cultural trends and experimentation – one person can’t simply put all the pieces of a genre together with a single attempt; there are numerous instances that built up to the composition of “Cubano Be, Cubano Bop.” Gillespie met Cuban musician Mario Bauzá years before the Carnegie Hall concert, and they often discussed the possibilities of a marriage between jazz and Afro-Cuban rhythms. Gillespie experimented with the concept, composing “Pickin’ the Cabbage” in 1939 for Cab Calloway’s band, a diluted attempt at integrating the two genres. Bauzá played upon his background to create more authentic blends of jazz and Afro-Cuban music as musical director for Machito and His Afro-Cubans. Most Latin Jazz historians would agree that the Bauzá captured the first authentic mixture of the two worlds when he composed “Tanga” in 1943. Further arrangements from Machito pianist Rene Hernandez integrated bebop soloists and solidified the idea. The Machito band didn’t stop with “Tanga” though; jazz became an increasing piece of their arrangements. Stan Kenton admired Machito during this time and requested a musical dedication from composer Pete Rugolo. The resultant piece, “Machito” was composed in 1946 and then recorded in March of 1947, six months before Gillespie’s Carnegie Hall concert. In simply a few isolated examples, it becomes very clear that Russell had several model to build upon; “Cubano Be, Cubano Bop” was far from the first fusion of Afro-Cuban rhythms with jazz.

At the same time, it’s important to investigate the actual musical importance of “Cubano Be, Cubano Bop” and its impact upon the tradition. The arrangement rides over an Afro rhythm, allowing Russell to write on a foundation with little syncopation. The resultant arrangement displays a beautiful sense of harmony and engaging melodies, but these prime jazz elements sit somewhat detached from the rhythmic basis. Russell and Gillespie understood limited information about Cuban music at this point, and a language barrier with Pozo complicated matters. It’s possible that Russell wrote the material without a complete concept of clave and simply asked Pozo to play something that fit. What made this song legendary was Pozo’s performance following Russell’s arrangement, an intensive and unaccompanied percussion feature that displayed Pozo’s massive chops and his knowledge of traditional song. Without Pozo, this piece would have lost the excitement and momentum that made it legendary. The rhythmic figures and tense harmonies found in the second half of the piece show keen compositional insight and massive potential. If Russell took more time refining his writing over Afro-Cuban rhythms, he may have built a strong voice in the style. Still, little Afro-Cuban music emerged in Russell’s later compositions.

The importance of “Cubano Be, Cubano Bop” was all about the moment and context of the performance, and its lasting impact remains isolated to history. By 1947, Gillespie had defined himself as a major voice in jazz and a stylistic innovator that had helped usher the world into the bebop era. The performance of “Cubano Be, Cubano Bop” signaled an influential leader of the jazz community publicly embracing Afro-Cuban rhythms in a relevant and artistic way. His performance sent a statement to the jazz community that Afro-Cuban rhythms held more potential than basic dance arrangements, they included the possibility for high art. At the same time, Gillespie premiered the work at a highly respected concert hall that served as a stage to the world. At that moment, Afro-Cuban music moved beyond the barrio and found a home in the serious concert hall. The power of Pozo’s performance captured the world’s attention and helped bolster the reputation of Afro-Cuban music. The power of these two elements form the cultural impact of “Cubano Be, Cubano Bop” much more than the musical content of a piece that has rarely been recorded or performed over the past 62 years since its premier.

Setting The Record Straight on Russell’s Contributions To Latin Jazz
It’s important to look at Russell’s contributions to Latin Jazz in an honest light, and considering these thoughts about “Cubano Be, Cubano Bop,” it’s hard to agree with the original statement from the Associated Press. Several sources changed this sentence slightly to create the sentence “It premiered at Carnegie Hall in 1947 and was one of the first fusions of Afro-Cuban rhythms with jazz.” Although this still skews the story a bit, at least these sources made an attempt to bend the story towards the truth. Maybe a more accurate state would be to say that (“Cubano Be, Cubano Bop”) was one of the first early fusions of Afro-Cuban rhythms with jazz to reach a wide audience and gain the attention of the greater bebop community. Journalists work within confines of word limits and such, but a slight revision like this would provide a more accurate portrayal of the situation and show greater respect to both Russell and the Latin Jazz world.

With all this in mind, one vital question remains – why is a correction like this even important? We’re discussing one sentence in a greater press release that for the most part kept its emphasis upon Russell’s creation of a theoretical concept. An important and experienced musician like Russell most likely would have pointed out the error; in reality, we’re probably looking at the mistake of a misinformed journalist that doesn’t understand Latin Jazz history. Besides, sensationalistic statements sell news, and the public always loves an artist that turns everything they touch to gold. So can’t we just write an error like this off to ignorance and scoff about the lack of respect for Latin Jazz in American culture?

Well, no we can’t. Doing so just allows mistakes like this to continue, and there are greater issues at hand.

Changing The Perception Of Latin Jazz
The attribution of “the first fusion of Afro-Cuban rhythms with jazz” to Russell completely co-opts the cultural background of Latin Jazz. With that one statement, the work that musicians from Cuba and Puerto Rico such as Bauzá, Machito, and Tito Puente did to build the style disappears. Based upon the press release, one man had the vision to combine Afro-Cuban rhythms with jazz, sparking the creation of a whole style. Gillespie and Pozo become footnotes in the overall story, simply the performers that followed the brilliance of the compositions. Well, actually, Gillespie becomes a footnote in the story, while Pozo, who wasn’t even mentioned in the article, becomes invisible. In one simple sentence, the Associated Press shifts the credit for a creation made by multiple African-American, Caribbean, & South American musicians to single man. This exists as one more example of Latino musicians and their contributions being buried, an unacceptable trend.

For years, the press, jazz historians, and musicians have understated, ignored, and altered the contribution of Latino musicians to the jazz world. Yet the recognized influence of Latin music dates back to the creation of jazz when Jelly Roll Morton discussed the essential “Spanish Tinge” in jazz. Latin musicians contributed actively to swing and bebop before the birth of “Latin Jazz,” displaying a high level of musicianship, comparable to their peers. As an example, trombonist Juan Tizol long served as a member of the Duke Ellington band, adding a distinct personality, improvisational skills, and strong compositions to the group. Musicians like Pozo, Bauzá, Machito, and Puente pioneered the integration of Afro-Cuban rhythms into a jazz context, expanding the artistic possibilities of the genre. Their compositions, recordings, and concerts not only resulted in inspiring music, but they also made powerful statements about cultural identity in the jazz world. It’s about time that more people from the jazz community and the worldwide audience make this association.

Where To Go From Here
We need to walk away with two ideas here –
1. We need to be unwavering in our awareness about Latin Jazz in our community and take every opportunity to defend it
2. George Russell was amazing musician that helped move the jazz world into the modern age; he just didn’t do it through the composition of “Cubano Be, Cubano Bop.”

Despite this press error following Russell’s death, it’s important to recognize the importance of his contributions to the jazz world. His Lydian Chromatic concept altered the perceptions of many jazz musicians and opened up the possibility of a completely new sound. The development of Miles’ modal concept may have traveled in a different direction without Russell – I’d hate to think of a world without Kind of Blue. Coltrane, Bill Evans, and Ornette Coleman all ingested Russell’s ideas and changed the world with some amazing music. Take the time to investigate Russell’s music and respect his contributions to the jazz world, he deserves it. Let’s just keep our eyes and ears open and continue to defend the cultural background of our music – I’m sure that Russell would have appreciated that.

Find Out More About George Russell And “Cubano Be, Cubano Bop”
There’s a variety of great tributes to Russell around the blogosphere focusing upon his major contributions, take a minute to check them out and learn more about him:
Rifftides
NPR’s A Blog Supreme
Nate Chinen’s The Gig
Jacob’s Jazz Blog

If you’re interested in checking out “Cubano Be, Cubano Bop,” here’s some listening suggestions:

Dizzy Gillespie: The Complete RCA Victor Recordings: 1947-1949

George Russell: New York Big Band

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Check Out These Related Posts:
An Open Letter To JazzTimes Regarding Latin Jazz
Is Latin Jazz On Its Deathbed? A Need To Reach The Younger Generation
10 Latin Jazz Perspectives On Miles Davis
Latin Jazz Standards: 10 Versions Of Tin Tin Deo

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